Tax Cuts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Tax Cuts - Essay Example Using the economic terms tackled in class, ways in which tax cuts could help revive the U.S. economy will be thoroughly explained. The concept of aggregate supply and demand allows us to have a better understanding of macroeconomic condition and the impact of implementing government decisions through fiscal policy. Specifically under the supply-side of economics, it is believed that implementing a significant increase in taxes could affect the entire economy by reducing the possible trading practices among the economic participants within a nation. Because of the sudden increase in government tax collection, the local people will be left with little money to spend on basic consumer goods. As a result of decreased trading practices between the people and businesses, potential investors are discouraged from investing more money. Therefore, reviving the U.S. economy through increased in government tax collection is not possible. In times of serious economic crisis, implementing a temporary tax cut through the use of a fiscal policy will empower the people to have more money to spend on basic commodities. This particular economic strategy is effective in terms of increasing the aggregate demand for locally made goods and services. Even though the country is going through a serious economic condition, the fact that people are encouraged to continuously spend their savings to purchase locally made goods and services will somehow improve the overall economic situation. Rather than borrowing large amount of money from international sources, implementing tax cuts is not a bad choice since the government will still be able to collect huge amount of tax collection from the business sectors. Basically, the tax multiplier effects of implementing tax cuts is the key behind enabling a country revive a slow growth economic condition. In the long run, there is a stronger possibility that the economic condition of a country will gradually recover from a poor

Prayer in Public Schools Essay Example for Free

Prayer in Public Schools Essay In the essay named Banning Prayer in Public Schools Has Led to Americas Demise by Gary Bergel, the argument is made that by removing prayer and any form of religious contemplation has caused America to plummet from righteous living, prosperity and success within the last quarter century. He states that from around June 25, 1962, when 39 billion students were forbidden to pray in school, Americas moral decline began to accelerate more rapidly. Bergel supports his claim by stating the main reasons behind the U. S. Supreme Court ruling and by issuing some religious tidbits. Even though Bergel lists some facts and names some general ideas, he has an extremely weak argument for the simple reason of the claims and warrants not being supported with factual or personal evidence. The opposing article that I have chosen is titled Argument against School Prayer by Adam Frucci. Frucci first starts out by saying that the article is not intended to bash God, or Christianity. But its purpose is to argue all forms of religion in schools, high school in particular. He states that high school is a place where you begin to separate from your parents and begin to form your own ideas. Keeping this in mind, its the absolute worst place to start forcing values and beliefs on you. He further states that religion will never be non-discriminatory; it can never totally include everyone. There will always be someone who doesnt fit in simply because of a personal belief, and high school is not the place to institute isolationism and criticism on any level outside of an academic level. Again, I like this article but it is somewhat biased because of the writers status of a student in a catholic high school. I get the feeling that he is really bitter about having the catholic beliefs forced on himbut frankly he, or his parents, chose for him to attend the school so he might as well adapt, learn, and become stronger from the situation. Both of the arguments are weak in their own ways and strong in others, and I will attempt to acknowledge most of their faults. Beginning with Bergels argument of the demoralization of the US as a result of the removal of prayer from public schools, I get the since that he is very adamant about getting his views across regardless of analyzing the other side of the story. The whole essay is just the ranting and ravings of a bitter Christian. No support is given to his main thoughts anywhere throughout the paper. In all of his main thoughts, he spouts some statistics and information about different factors that have influenced the topic, however there is no substantial evidence of factual data, but rather only his own opinion. In the first section of the essay, he mentions that there has been a decline in family and morality. How does one evaluate a decline in something so abstract and so subjective? It is clear that from here on out, he is making general assumptions based solely on his beliefs. Bergel goes on to argue that removing prayer from school creates the secular system beyond the power of God. This is a faulty argument for the simple Christian fact that if God is all powerful, how can anything be created beyond Gods power. If anything, removal of prayer will keep children from experiencing God in more than a church setting. He also argues that in doing so, religion in being stripped from the lips and minds of children. Its not restraining a child from totally expressing or acting religiously, its simply preventing prayer to be forced on those who arent believers. Its, in essence, protecting the first amendment rights of those affected and moreover, is a gross exaggeration of the case in hand in addition to the fact that religion cant be totally taken from some one. At a point in the article, he mentions the Engle vs. Vitale Supreme Court case. The whole ruling has nothing to do with keeping kids from learning the religion, its concerned with children who arent believers of Christianity not being forced to participate in something that they dont believe in. Bergel seems to forget that the basic principle of separation of church and state is that the US isnt a professed catholic state therefore it cant just allow the use of one religion over another in any public arena. The Engle vs. Vitale ruling doesnt eliminate the learning of religion, it simply doesnt allow institutions to force the practice of Christianity on kids of other faiths. In general, his rational appears to be based on passionate fervor rather than rational thought and analysis of the Engle vs. Vitale ruling and its surrounding issues. He never pinpoints the issues and examines them within his analysis. He never presents an argument against the opposition but rather rants and raves about what he believes to be right thus stacking the evidence and therefore making it seem as if anything that is in opposition to his beliefs are wrong. In addition, he never mentions anything about his main idea of prayer in school prayer, thus committing a red herring. In Fruccis article concerning the argument for the removal of school prayer, it has both good and bad aspects to it, thusly providing me with the evidence that this is a stronger argument than that of Bergel. Frucci suggests to us that high school is the worst time to impose such a subject for the simple reason that its a time when one is learning about ones self and its not the time to impose new mindsets. Firstly, Religion cant be imposed but rather be encouraged and taughtits up to the educated whether or not to accept the knowledge. Fruccis statement is purely circumstantial because people learn at all times of life and new ideas are presented everyday. Therefore, the teaching of religion in schools can only offer more options rather than changing ones whole mindset. In saying that the setting is inappropriate, Frucci is clearly showing signs of his immaturity. In my own opinion, school is the one of the best places to teach religion. The childs inability to concentrate and focus on the task at had does not warrant removal of school prayer. If thats the case, school in general should be gotten rid of because of the childs inherent nature to be easily distracted and loose concentration. One of Fruccis strongest arguments within the paper is that prayer in schools does create a since of discrimination. However, he takes it to the extreme when saying that the since of community will be ruined because of their nonparticipation. Overall, Fruccis essay is stronger than Brugels in the since of me, the reader, being able to relate to the authors point of view, as well as the amount of support that was given to each point raised. Fruccis essay presents more of an argument, as opposed to Brugels which is more of an outcry of ideas. However both essays are pretty weak in their persuasiveness, but since I have to choose on, Id have to say that Fruccis is the stronger of the two.

Preoperative Hair Removal Carried Out As Skin Preparation Nursing Essay

Preoperative Hair Removal Carried Out As Skin Preparation Nursing Essay Traditionally preoperative hair removal has been carried out as skin preparation method to reduce exposure to bacteria which may lead to surgical site infections (SSI) (Gottrup et al 2005). SSIs are defined by Centres for Disease Control (CDC) as superficial, deep incision and organ infection. According to Miller (2001) hair has been removed for such reason as wound asepsis, suitable placement of bandages, and access to operative site and accurate approximation of wound edges. Though preoperative hair removal has been in practice since 18th century its impact on the wound site has been under contention and therefore attracted the authors interest in seeking ways of hair removal without skin damage. However there are concerns that hair removal increases rather than reduces infection, in a study carried out by Astegnau et al (2001) to identify mortality and morbidity related to surgical site infection suggested that shaving increased the risk of infection by facilitating colonisation o f bacteria in the operating site. Many organisations, Association of Perioperative Registered Nurses (AORN2006) and Association for Perioperative Practise (AFPP2007) have moved away from hair removal. There is no clarity in literature as to the origin of preoperative hair removal, but researchers conclude to the fact that the surgeons of the time believed that wounds might heal more quickly if hair could be prevented from becoming entangled in the sutures and wound during closure (Miller et al 2001). Shaving with a razor substantiated the emergence of preoperative hair removal in a systematic literature review by Kjonnisken et al (2002) as an established practice based on assumption of preventing surgical site infection. Some other methods, electric clipping and depilatory creams have been highlighted as having lower postoperative wound infection rates. Hair is associated with poor hygiene habits because it harbours bacteria and removing it is thought to reduce surgical infections (Kumar 2002). Hair removal is done by shaving with either a razor or a clipper which are believed to cause both visible and microscopic injuries (Briggs1997). The damage caused by a razor or a clipper can release flora-providing access to serous exudates on which micro organisms may grow (Small 1996). Skin is always a hunting ground for microbes. Once the skins protective barrier is diminished primarily by a surgeons incision, microbes can potentially contaminate the wound. Loius Pasteur in confirmation of the existing understanding into the world of infection hypothesized in his germ theory that invisible bacteria could cause surgical infection if they gained entry through the broken skin (Fogg 2003). A national audit in 2004 suggests that surgical site infections increases patients hospital stay, and increases health care cost by delaying wound healing, this causes major physical limitations and reduced quality of life (Whitehouse et al 2002). If occurring after discharge the patient is likely to be readmitted which is a burden to the patient and can even cause death (Plowman 2000). Surgical site infections occurs within 30 days after surgery, exudes pus and shows one of the following symptoms pain, localised swelling and redness according to the Centre for Disease Control (1999). While once accepted as a standard practise for surgical procedures, hair removal is now being considered in great depth in the research. This essay will review the role of hair removal in the perioperative setting and its impact on surgical site infections. The author will discuss research regarding nurses and doctors knowledge on recommended guidelines on hair removal methods, comparison and timing of hair removal methods and their relationship to incidences of surgical site infections. Keywords used for the search are preoperative skin preparation, hair removal, preoperative razor shaving, electric clipping, depilatory creams and surgical site infections. The databases utilised were CINAHL, Cochraine database of systematic reviews, Health Source Nursing and Allied Health Science. The studies were done in USA, UK, Canada and Turkey. Hair Removal Methods Razor shaving is the cheapest and most commonly used hair removal method (Tanner et al. 2007). Using a sharp blade held with the head of the razor that is drawn to the patients skin to cut hair close to the skin surface. Razor shaving increases bacterial infection rates (Basevi Lavender 2001). Another method entails the use of clipper that uses fine teeth to remove hair close to the skin leaving stubble of usually one millimetre in length. Heads are disposable and handles are disinfected between patients to minimise risk of cross infection (Tanner et al. 2006). A further method is the use of depilatory creams that utilises chemicals, which dissolves the patients hair. Cream has to be in contact with the hair for between 5-20 minutes. A patch test should be done 24 hours before using the cream as some patients can develop allergic reactions and some have sensitive skins (Kjonnisken et al .2002). Miller et al. (2001) conducted a retrospective study comparing all patients who underwent intracranial procedures in the last two and half years where hair was not shaved, to patients done three and half years back that were shaved, to determine whether no hair removal increase post operative infection rate. Results were documented as minor, moderate and severe. Of the 250 subjects used 150 patients were not shaved and 7% developed post operative wound infection compared to 6.6% infections in the shaved group. There was no statistical significance in these findings though the sample size is large for an organisational setting however the finding could not be generalised based on this number. An experimental study was performed on 82 patients who underwent abdominal surgery between November 30th May 2005 to determine the effect of preoperative hair removal on post operative wound infection. Patients were told the aim of the study and they signed consents. Inclusion criteria were pati ents who had not been hospitalised within the last 30 days and didnt have infections while being admitted. Control group with 39 patients were razor shaved and on 43 for study group clippers were used. Patients were observed for signs of SSI two days post operatively and 7% of the study group developed SSI compared to 25.6 % in the control group. The results are statistically significant but the sample size is small and the fact that abdominal surgeries are viewed dirtier than lower limbs makes findings hard to generalise however the length of time and the study design utilised would have enabled the establishment of rigor for the findings to be reliable. The study uptake therefore will be better with an increased sample size. Though the latest studies are endorsing hair clipping (Tanner et al 2006). (Boyce Pittet 2002), more studies need to be carried out. A double-blind prospective study was carried out between 2000-2004 for all patients undergoing spinal surgery (Celik et al. 2007 ) to determine the effect of razor shaving and increased rate of postoperative site infection compared to no hair removal. The shaved group consisted of 371 subjects and the unshaved group comprised of 418 subjects. Patients were fully informed about the study and consents obtained. The subjects were randomly allocated according to pre-surgical shaving status. Exclusion criteria involved patients with skin conditions acne, furuncle and sebaceous cyst, patients with nutritional deficiency and medical conditions like diabetes and cancer. Same skin preparations were done in both groups. Both subjects received prophylactic antibiotics. Postoperatively, both groups were observed for signs of infection redness swelling and purulent discharge and bloods taken to check erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Infection was higher in the shaved group (p=.01) 4 patients in a shaved group (1.07%) developed infection and in only 1 patient in the unshaved group (0.23%). The findings suggest that preoperative hair removal increases postoperative infections. This study was ethically approved and both methodology and aim were clear and concise. These all confirm its reliability however giving antibiotics during procedures may mask the results causing the study to be unreliable. A randomised control study was conducted by (Menendez et al. 2004) aiming to assess the effects of preoperative shaving of pubic hair on postoperative bacterium after urological surgery. A sample size of 300 patients was used. 149 patients were shaved and 151 were not shaved. In both groups urine samples were taken for culture before being given prophylactic antibiotic and again at one week before the catheter was removed. In the shaved group 19.5% developed infection as compared to 16.6% in the non-shaved group. The difference was found not to be statistically significant. The results were based on testing urine samples than in the wounds making the study invalid. There is no clarity about ethical considerations and if the aim and purpose of the study was explained to the subjects and whether the consent obtained was informed. The prophylactic administration of the antibiotics makes the study to be unreliable and not valid. In Cochraine collaboration review data Tanner et al. (2007) conducted eleven randomised controlled trials to evaluate the effects of routine preoperative hair removal with razor as opposed to no hair removal in postoperative infection. The authors concluded that there is no sufficient evidence to prove that hair removal causes an increased risk of surgical site infections. However the study suggested the use of clippers or depilatory cream when necessary to remove hair with an idea that both methods results in fewer surgical site infections. Comparison of hair removal methods Trussell et al. (2008) conducted a thirty nine month observational study where razor shaving utensils were removed and replaced with clippers. The sample size consisted of one thousand eight hundred and twenty seven patients undergoing coronary bypass procedure. There was an in-service training for both nurses and doctors to teach them the effects of razor shaving, instructing them how to use electric clippers which is thought to be less traumatic to the skin when removing hair .The rate of sternal infections decreased from 3.5% to 1.5 %(p= .001) when using electric clippers. The qualitative method and the design of the above study suits the sample size, and neither observational bias nor antibiotic masking of the findings were introduced in the study resulting in a proper analysis of the data. The results also showed that the removals of razors and staff education not to use them for shaving were cost effective, and time effective. Costs related to preoperative hair removal are associated with postoperative infection and longer stay of patients in the hospital. A prospective report of Cruse and Ford (1980) cited in journals a-z Spine (2007 insert author here) with the objective to evaluate post operative clean surgical wounds in 3 groups. In a prospective observational study they compared patients shaved with razor, electric clippers and those with no hair removal. They did long term follow up on 62,339 patients. In this study the patients were not scrubbed with antiseptic solution. Their findings were that only 2.8% infections occurred in patients whose hair was removed by clippers compared to 3.2% in razor shaved patients and 0.9 in unshaved group. The sample size is good, the method and aim is clearly explained this makes the study reliable and rigorous. The results of a similar study carried by Zetner et al cited in spine (2007 insert author here) for patients who underwent craniotomy found that infection rate was lower in patients whose hair was removed with clippers observational studies favoured clipping. Shaving Versus Depilatory Cream A randomised controlled study conducted by Kjonnisken et al. (2002) included 400 subjects for abdominal surgery divided in three groups. In shaved group 12.4% develop infection, 7.9% in the depilatory group and 7.8% in non shaved group. The results are unreliable proof of effects of hair removal because the use of antiseptic solutions and giving antibiotics during the operation has affected the validity of the study. The study design being suitable for a quantitative method of study could be considered unfruitful due to poor detailed explanation of the randomisation method. Seven trials involving 1213 subjects were included which consisted of mixed surgical procedures in 1 trial. There was a variation in times of outcome assessments ranging from 2 to 28 days. Overall results 10% (65/670) patients developed surgical site infection in the shaved group compared to 7 % (38/543) who were in a group of cream hair removal. The results of this study are not reliable because 3 of the trials did not report at what period the assessment was carried out. Observational studies showed more significant effect when using depilatory cream, although creams reported adverse effects such as skin allergies and reactions. TIME AND PLACE Another phenomenon evident in literature in relation to hair removal methods causing postoperative surgical site infections is time and place of hair removal. There is evidence that the adverse effect of bacterial access and growth produced by razor and clippers is worsened by the interval between shaving injury and surgery. The timing of hair removal has been determined according to health workers schedule rather than in response to scientific evidence. Tanner et al. (2006) argued that there is little evidence that supports the assumption that removing hair as close to time of surgery minimises the time of bacteria to colonise the cuts caused by shaving. Surveys have found that a majority of hospitals have policies to remove surgical site hair the evening before surgery. A randomised study of 1,013 patients cited in Advanced journal of nursing 2006 (who is the author) showed no significant difference in numbers of surgical site infections when skin was shaved the evening before or day of the operation (p=0.69). One trial of 531 patients found that 5.1% of patients shaved the day before surgery developed surgical site infections compared to 6.5% of patients shaved on the day of surgery (where is the ref.). This seems to oppose hair removal close to the time of surgery. The same study compared using clippers on the night before surgery and on the morning just before surgery. Results were in favour of clipping in the morning before sur gery (p.0.027 on discharge). This was maintained at a 30-day follow up (p=0.006)( what is the meaning of this.) One prospective observational study conducted by Alexander 2003 cited in (Joanna Briggs systematic literature review 2007) with sample size of 536 patients found that patients shaved 12 hours before surgery had lower risk of surgical site infections than patients shaved less than 2 hour prior to surgery. ( why is this so) A survey was carried out on 589 surgeons in Canada comparing their practises to recommendations of evidence based guidelines on preventing surgical site infection. A list was generated using the database of College of Physicians and Surgeons currently practising in the province. The study was approved by the Health Research Ethics Board. Surveys were emailed to the participants and only 242 were returned by mail without return address with 63% showing non compliance with the recommendations. Compared with general surgeons, gynaecological and plastic surgeons used razors than clippers, p=.004. (why are these hanging) A questionnaire-based survey was conducted between February and April 2005 to assess the opinions and practices of surgeons and ward staff with regard to patients hair removal. The answers suggested that they were not up to date with the literature and its effect on postoperative wound infections. If attitudes are to change, the surgeons need to develop a protocol with clear guidelines as to when and by what technique they need hair removal to be performed. Recommendations and Implications to Practice As patients advocates nurses need to play an important role in reducing the incidences of surgical site infections. Nursing procedures that are harmful to the patients may breach codes of professional standards. Alongside the nurses ethical duty to protect their patient it is important that nurses are aware they may be held legally accountable for their actions. Most hospital acquired infections can be prevented by implementing effective, preventive strategies throughout the patients surgical journey. Nurses have to develop patients education materials on proper hair removal. Whenever hair is to be removed it should be done by someone who has knowledge of appropriate technique and is skilful to the procedure. Through continued staff educational programmes and in-service education on the use of clippers to improve compliance with professional recommendations and promote patients safety. Nurses need to assess patients skin prior to hair removal to identify any potential risk of cuts. T hey must keep abreast with research findings incorporating resulting guidelines into practice. To maximize their advocacy role with regards to preoperative hair removal, nurses must work together with infection control staff, supply management and risk management to minimise the risk of infections.(why). The research into preventing surgical site infections found that preoperative hair removal is not necessary to reduce the risk of infection and should be avoided. The studies reviewed show there is a relationship between shaving with razor and increased surgical site infection rates. Different hair removal practises are recommended by organisations that set guidelines and standards for practice (Guidelines for Centre for DISEASE CONTROL and AORN 2007 (Recommended practice for skin preparation) states that hair removal is not necessary unless it interferes with the incision, draping and putting dressings. If hair needs to be removed they recommend using clippers instead of razor, for they are safe and easy to use. Norwegian centre for health technology assessment argues that there is no strong evidence in favour of or against hair removal, and recommend not to avoid preoperative hair removal. Although evidence is limited on the timing of clipping, its recommended it has to be done as close to the time of surgery preferable two hours before. They further specify that hair should be clipped using a single use electric clipper with a reusable head that can be sterilized between patients. However the authors opinion is that clippers with disposable heads should be utilised since it is more cost effective and time saving when compared to sterilisation. They recommend hair clipping outside the operating room to minimise the dispersal of hair which have potential of contaminating the sterile field and surgical wound (Mews 2000). Hospital infection society working party guidelines recommend using cream a day before surgery. Depilatories may be used if skin testing has been done following the manufacturer instruction, without tissue irritation. Since creams can be messy patients may be advised to use them before turning up for admission. Some hospitals still continue routine hair removal long after dissemination of recommendations against it. The author believes that it is an indication to audit hair removal procedures and adhere to the recommended guidelines and policies. In addition to the clinical advantages, clippers are also cost effective. One study by Trussell et al (2008) estimated a cost saving of $270,000 per 1000 patients when shaving was replaced with clipping. The study also concluded that long-term savings should be considered due to reduction of the incidences of postoperative wound infections. Other studies reported cost comparisons between wet razors shave and use of cream finding cream to be expensive. This cost saving was limited, covering only minimal direct costs rather than full range of direct and indirect costs of shaving items compared with the cost of depilatory cream. The use of depilatory cream was also found to be effective, though there are limitations to its use due to time factor. Conclusion Surgical site infection is one of the commonest health associated infections. Surgical site infections can occur in 10% of patients each year resulting in delayed wound healing, increased hospital stay, unnecessary pain, readmission and even death. Seemingly there is no scientific basis of preoperative skin shaving. Studies illustrates that preoperative hair removal methods have been found to be the causes of surgical site infections, because of the cuts they cause on the skin making it to be colonised by microbes. Hair clipping is considered the favoured method of hair removal but its not without error. Preoperative hair clipping protocol was developed in 2003 (by who) and literature reviews have proven that these policies are still relevant. Studies have also reinforced the importance of staff education which will help to strengthen the use of electric clippers. Nurses must keep abreast of research findings to be able to support their rationale for change when championing this crusade to their medical colleagues. Through these efforts the surgical team can provide the safest environment to reduce the risk for the development of surgical site infections, promoting positive outcomes for all surgical patients. Future research wi ll determine the effectiveness and success of clippers which improves patients safety against surgical site infections.

Pouring Postmodernism into the Computer :: Internet Technology Essays

Pouring Postmodernism into the Computer "I can't define it, but I know it when I see it," has become a standard reply to questions that are hard to answer, now serving as the definition of more than just pornography. Postmodernism seems to at times share this elusive definition. To paraphrase Lyotard, its refusal to take solace in and unified form and conventions are partly responsible for its apparently shapeless definition. Paraphrasing Sherry Turkle, computer culture realizes postmodern concepts, especially a realization of those concepts pertaining to the nature of the self (17-19). For Turkle and others, partaking in chat rooms, creating identities on the computer, and the structure of computer software itself all concretize a previously abstract set of postmodern concepts. Before summarizing segments of Turkle's Identity in the Age of the Internet, a short background on postmodern concepts of the self is helpful. Postmodern thought rejects the idea of a deeper self that can be discovered by rationally peeling away surface layers of that self. The idea that truth can be found by this process, on a personal level or in a narrative structure, is a point of contention. As Stephen Frosh says in Social Experience and the Constructed Self, "More generally, postmodernism opposes all tendencies to take refuge in any illusion of wholeness or of received wisdom†¦" (277). Thus, enlightenment-age scientific approaches to uncover knowledge fall under the "illusion of wholeness and received wisdom." Instead, postmodernism perceives the world through a large network of interconnected but meaningless things and experiences (Frosh, 282). Frosh's opinion of self and action is also revealing: "†¦gone is the differentiation between the self and its expression†¦.Meaning does not precede these practices, but is enigmatically created by them†¦" (280). This is to say that in the writing of a book for example, meaning is produced by the text. The author ceases to be a sort of creator, with a preconceived plan. The book's meaning is transitory, as readers may have several different experiences with a book, regardless of the author's intentions. Finally comes the idea of the self as a social construct. To make sense of the world around us, some have suggested that the self is created in order to give a reference point for existence. Self-construction gives our lives meaning because it allows us to make sense of what surrounds us. I am me. That house across the street is not me, neither are the people who live in that house. Pouring Postmodernism into the Computer :: Internet Technology Essays Pouring Postmodernism into the Computer "I can't define it, but I know it when I see it," has become a standard reply to questions that are hard to answer, now serving as the definition of more than just pornography. Postmodernism seems to at times share this elusive definition. To paraphrase Lyotard, its refusal to take solace in and unified form and conventions are partly responsible for its apparently shapeless definition. Paraphrasing Sherry Turkle, computer culture realizes postmodern concepts, especially a realization of those concepts pertaining to the nature of the self (17-19). For Turkle and others, partaking in chat rooms, creating identities on the computer, and the structure of computer software itself all concretize a previously abstract set of postmodern concepts. Before summarizing segments of Turkle's Identity in the Age of the Internet, a short background on postmodern concepts of the self is helpful. Postmodern thought rejects the idea of a deeper self that can be discovered by rationally peeling away surface layers of that self. The idea that truth can be found by this process, on a personal level or in a narrative structure, is a point of contention. As Stephen Frosh says in Social Experience and the Constructed Self, "More generally, postmodernism opposes all tendencies to take refuge in any illusion of wholeness or of received wisdom†¦" (277). Thus, enlightenment-age scientific approaches to uncover knowledge fall under the "illusion of wholeness and received wisdom." Instead, postmodernism perceives the world through a large network of interconnected but meaningless things and experiences (Frosh, 282). Frosh's opinion of self and action is also revealing: "†¦gone is the differentiation between the self and its expression†¦.Meaning does not precede these practices, but is enigmatically created by them†¦" (280). This is to say that in the writing of a book for example, meaning is produced by the text. The author ceases to be a sort of creator, with a preconceived plan. The book's meaning is transitory, as readers may have several different experiences with a book, regardless of the author's intentions. Finally comes the idea of the self as a social construct. To make sense of the world around us, some have suggested that the self is created in order to give a reference point for existence. Self-construction gives our lives meaning because it allows us to make sense of what surrounds us. I am me. That house across the street is not me, neither are the people who live in that house.

The Like Minds of Emerson and Douglass Essay -- Biography Biographies

The Like Minds of Emerson and Douglass      Ã‚   Few, if any, writers of the American Renaissance period had as great an influence on contemporaries as did Ralph Waldo Emerson. He was insistent that America put its mark on the literary world with its own, genuine American literature, and he launched the movement with his own works (Bode 574). Frederick Douglass was a slave of the American south when Emerson was starting out and moving up in his profession. Eventually, Douglass became Emersonà ¢s fellow writer and lecturer. Douglass was present and was asked to speak for the Womenà ¢s Anti-Slavery Society in August 1844, in Concord, where Emerson was the keynote speaker. The two men shared common ideas, as we shall see as the literary works and lives of the two men are examined. To some extent Emerson had an influence on Douglassà ¢s expressed views, but on the other hand, some of Douglassà ¢s views were a product of his own natural inclination.    Emerson believed that the human spirit could be relied on to lift man up to overcome any tribulation that might be encountered (Bode 574). Douglass inadvertantly proved Emerson right when he lifted himself out of the dehumanizing bondage of slavery through his sheer will of human spirit. Douglass went on to become a hero of the slave movement after he gained his freedom.    Emerson "believed in a reality and a knowledge that transcended the everyday reality ·" He also felt strongly that individuals should trust fully in the integrity of self (Bode 573). There is a correspondence between this "self-made" man of Emersonà ¢s and Frederick Douglass. During the course of Douglassà ¢s career, his actions and words epitomized Emersonian ideas.    The issue of abolishment of slavery d... ...ce, exemplary character, and social inspiration" (Martin 263).    Works Cited    Belasco, Susan. Harriet Martineauà ¢s Black Hero and the American Antislavery Movement. Nineteenth-Century Literature, Vol II. University of California Press, 2000. 1-23. Bode, Carl. Emerson. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Biography Vol III. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc., 1973. 572-574. Frederick Douglass 1818-1895. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter. Boston: Houghton, 1998. 1578-1690. Martin, Waldo E., Jr. The Mind of Frederick Douglass. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985. Ralph Waldo Emerson 1803-1882. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter. Boston: Houghton, 1998. 1578-1690. Rowe, John Carlos. At Emersonà ¢s Tomb: The Politics of Classic American Literature. New York: Columbia UP, 1997.   

Epilepsy Control Prayer Type Exercise Health And Social Care Essay

Epilepsy is caused by sudden bustles of electrochemical activity in the encephalon, which interrupt the ‘conversation ‘ among nerve cells. Consciousness, memory, sense, address, temper, motion, and gestures can all be affected during the one or two proceedingss that the ictus lasts. Walking, jogging, running and stationary bicycling are peculiarly safe, but particularly â€Å" Prayer type yoga exercising † clearly benefits epileptic dwellers to command epilepsy because it frequently reduces ictus frequence, relieves depression, decreases societal segregation, and promotes cardiac and general wellness. This paper proposes the survey about yoga â€Å" Prayer † , which is non truly an exercising but similar to yoga, assisting in commanding of epilepsy and besides physically, mentally, spiritually relaxation can besides be achieved through this method. Spiritual spiritual believe and patterns have an of import impact on both physical and mental wellness. The consequence of exercising on ictus frequence and abrasiveness [ 1, 2 ] has been demonstrated, and exercising may confabulate a protective consequence on epileptic patients [ 3, 4 ] . Patients who contribute in physical activity present fewer ictuss than inactive patients, but neither the cause nor the consequence are established [ 1 ] . However, the alterations in the EEG created by exercising and the reduced response to hyperventilation after exercising are associated to steel cell acidosis [ 5 ] , bespeaking that physical exercising suppresses activity and raises the ictus threshold. In add-on, effects of physical exercising in human being with epilepsy has been demonstrated [ 6, 7 ] and physical preparation during the chronic period reduces the frequence of ictuss [ 7 ] . Brain metamorphosis during ictuss and interictal periods provides a signal of the cardinal nervous system structures responsible for the coevals, extension, and control of the epileptic activity. Epilepsy is a general term used for a group of upsets that cause instability in electrical signaling in the encephalon. Such as such an office edifice or a computing machine, the encephalon is a extremely complex electrical being, powered by approximately 80 pulsations of energy per second. There are many kinds of ictus i.e. Partial or focal ictuss, complex partial ictus, simple partial ictuss, absence ictuss, tonic-clonic ictuss, myoclonic ictuss, childish cramps, atonic or a kinetic ictuss and feverish ictuss. Before a ictus, many people experience a warning mark called an aura, which may affect a peculiar odor, feeling or ocular consequence. Additionally after a ictus, a individual may be confused, tired, or sleepy, experience musculus achings or tenderness, and may non retrieve what happened. Participating in physical activity and exercising has of import benefits, including preventing, handling and cut downing hazard factors for conditions such as coronary bosom disease, diabetes, high blood pressure and degenerative arthritis. Physical activity can besides positively impact terrible conditions, such as malignant neoplastic disease, and support life style alterations, such as smoking surcease [ 11, 12 ] . Furthermore, people with epilepsy face extra barriers to exert, as epilepsy well impacts their wellness and lifestyle [ 13, 14 ] . Many patients with epilepsy are physically inactive owing to frights of exercise-induced ictuss or counsel given by household members and wellness experts [ 15, 16 ] . Patients with epilepsy who overcome these barriers and concerns, nevertheless, stand to profit from physical activity in a figure of ways, with improved cardiovascular wellness among the most outstanding [ 17 ] . A survey in Scandinavia reported that, where 10 % of the population with epilepsy is prone to holding ictuss induced by strenuous exercising, another 30 % to 40 % of the study population experienced reasonably reduced ictuss following regular physical exercising [ 18 ] . Patients with epilepsy can by and large be confident to prosecute in physical activity, yet because of the specialnesss of each person ‘s epilepsy, audience with a doctor must predate activity [ 18 ] . Epileptic utilizations different ways of aerophilic exercising i.e. Dancing, Swimming, Pilates and yoga, Team athleticss, Weight preparation, Golf, Tennis, Squash, Racket athleticss, Rowing, kayaking, Cycling, Aerobics classes, Walking and jogging, but this paper nowadays another YOGA supplication type exercising, which is really nice as comparison to another exercisings, suited and easy for any one, any clip and besides can execute anyplace. II. Related Background Yoga physical exercising is by and large accepted to lend to general wellness and well-being superior temper, life quality and decrease in symptoms of anxiousness, unhappiness and depression [ 8, 9 ] . Positive physiologic effects, including improved cardiovascular fittingness are good standard [ 8 ] . However, during physical activity ( nonvoluntary hyperventilation ) , the increased respiratory rate is a creative activity of the greater metabolic and respiratory demand. This compensatory mechanism is wholly different from the procedure of non-physiological hyperventilation [ 10 ] . Many people with epilepsy do non take part in physical exercising classs and live a sedentary life [ 24, 26 ] . Momism, isolation, low self-pride, depression, and anxiousness [ 27, 29 ] are considerable barriers to an active life. Furthermore, obstacles for some individuals with epilepsy who desire to populate an active life are the impression that physical activity provokes ictuss and besides do them prone to hurts [ 24 ] . Several surveies have shown a low grade of engagement in physical activities among people with epilepsy [ 25, 26 ] . Although the chief concern with respect to physical exercising by individuals with epilepsy has been exercise-induced ictuss, other factors such as deficiency of preparation installations, jobs with transit, low motive, and fright of qualified teachers who know how to manage such jobs are noted [ 25 ] . Assorted surveies have been designed to analyze this topic comparing physical and societal activities among patients with epilepsy based on questio nnaires and/or clinical surveies [ 24, 30 ] . They besides assess physical fittingness by utilizing standardised trials of physical endurance [ 30, 31 ] and physical preparation plans [ 32 ] . Epidemiologic informations in the literature shows the relationship between epilepsy and physical exercising based on different populations from assorted states [ 25 ] . Observed that patients with epilepsy from a Norse population were half as active physically as the normal population and their physical fittingness corresponded to their sedentary life style. Other surveies have confirmed these findings demoing that people with epilepsy have a low grade of engagement in physical activities [ 24, 33 ] . The existent benefits of physical activities and aerophilic exercising are achieved by increasing bosom rate and take a breathing hard for an drawn-out period of clip. During this aerophilic activity the organic structure produces more energy and delivers more O to musculuss. Heart beats faster and increases the blood flow to musculuss and so back to lungs. Prayer is by and large understood as a communicative act between worlds and the Godhead. Yet as a communicative act it is slightly curious in that God ‘s ( the addressee ‘s ) presence and action is frequently rather unsure. Anthropologist Webb Keane notes, †In contrast to face-to-face brushs of conversation analysis, the presence, battle, and individuality of religious participants in the address event can non ever be presupposed or guaranteed [ 34 ] . Prayer frequently seeks to convey about interaction between human existences and other sorts of existences that would ( or should ) non otherwise occur. Even belief in the ubiquity of deity does non guarantee that one can interact with it † [ 34 ] . In contrast to interactions between worlds, supplication by and large involves uncertainness about whether and how the Godhead listens and responds, doing these dealingss remarkably complex [ 35 ] . Prayers are besides speech Acts of the Apostless, governed by peculiar sorts of address genres. As Keane ‘s quotation mark suggests, the fact that supplications can be distinguished as Acts of the Apostless of communicating with a Godhead histrion ( presence or agent ) organizes the certainties and uncertainnesss within these speech Acts of the Apostless in different ways [ 36 ] . Recent psychological literature concentrating on supplication and faith wages relatively small attending to non-agentic, subjective constructs of deity. Building on psychobiological evolutionary theoretical accounts of faith ‘s outgrowth as a response to peculiar biological and psychological riddles, Gods are interpreted and posited as speculations that play certain maps [ 37 ] . Increasing grounds suggests that religious and spiritual beliefs and patterns have an of import impact on both physical and mental wellness [ 19 ] . Data suggest that faith and spiritualty may be protective against physical and psychological unwellness every bit good as of import tools for get bying with life stressors [ 19 ] . More specifically, spiritualty has been shown to increase resiliency to depression in persons enduring from terminal unwellnesss religionism has been correlated with improved psychosocial accommodation in malignant neoplastic disease patients [ 20, 21 ] . In add-on, religious patterns, such as mindfulness speculation, have been associated with emphasis decrease and improved header among several populations, including chronic hurting patients, persons with panic upset [ 22 ] and overworked medical pupils [ 23 ] . III. Methodology and Results Yoga consists of a figure of â€Å" Asnas † or organic structure places, which one retains for a coveted length of clip while either declaiming â€Å" Mantras † or take a breathing in a rhythmic mode. Its benefits have been researched by many physicians who now recommend it to their patients, by many medical schools such as Harvard, and by many foundations such as the Menninger Foundation. The Muslim supplication has five places, and they all ( every bit good as the recitations we make while executing the supplication ) have a corresponding relationship with our religious and mental good being, harmonizing to modern scientific research. Muslims pray five times a twenty-four hours, which each supplication made of a series of positions and motions, each set of which is called a rak'ah. The benefits of executing specific motions and recitations each twenty-four hours come from the right rendering of the place or action itself, the length of clip the place is held, and from careful and right recitation techniques. Each of the five supplication places has a corresponding yoga place, and the places together â€Å" trip † all seven â€Å" chakras † ( energy Fieldss ) in the organic structure. The TAKBIR and AL-QIYYAM together are really similar to the â€Å" MOUNTAIN POSE † in yoga, which has been found to better position, balance, and self-awareness. This place besides normalizes blood force per unit area and external respiration, therefore supplying many benefits to asthma and bosom patients. Fig 1. Takbir Mountain Pose Figure 1. Takbir in supplication and Mountain in yoga. The arrangement of the custodies on the thorax during the Qiyyam place are said to trip the â€Å" SOLAR PLEXUS † chakra or nervus tract, which directs our consciousness of ego in the universe and controls the wellness of the muscular system, tegument, bowels, liver, pancreas, gall bladder and eyes. When the custodies are held unfastened for du'a, they activate the bosom â€Å" chakra, † said to be the centre of the feelings of love, harmoniousness and peace to command love and compassion. It besides governs the wellness of the bosom, lungs, Thymus, immune system, and circulatory system. Fig 2. Qiyyam Solar Plexus Figure 2. Qiyyam in supplication and Solar Plexus in yoga. The place of RUKU is really similar to the â€Å" FORWARD BEND † Position in yoga. Ruku stretches the musculuss of the lower dorsum, thighs, legs and calves, and allows blood to be pumped down into the upper trunk. It tones the musculuss of the tummy, venters, and kidneys. Forming a right angle allows the tummy muscles to develop and prevents limpness in the mid-section. This place besides promotes a greater flow of blood into the upper parts of organic structure – peculiarly to the caput, eyes, ears, nose, encephalon, and lungs – leting mental toxins to be released. Over clip, this improves encephalon map and 1s personality. This is an first-class stance to keep the proper place of the foetus in pregnant adult females. Fig 3. Ruku Forward Bend Figure 3. Ruku in supplication and Forward Bend in yoga. The SUJUD is said to trip the â€Å" CROWN CHAKRA † which is related to a individual ‘s religious connexion with the existence around them and their enthusiasm for religious chases. This nervus tract is besides correlated to the wellness of the encephalon, nervous system, and pineal secretory organ. Its healthy map balances 1s interior and exterior energies. In Sujud, we besides bend articulatio genuss. Therefore triping the â€Å" BASE CHAKRA † , this controls basic human endurance inherent aptitudes and provides indispensable foundation. Sujud helps to develop healthy and positive thought along with a extremely motivated position of life, and maintains the wellness of the lymph and skeletal systems, the prostate, vesica, and the adrenal secretory organs. We besides bend the â€Å" sacral chakra † during Sujud. Thus benefiting and chanting the generative variety meats. Fig 4. Sujud Crown Chakra Figur 4. Sujud in pray and Crown in yoga. The place of AL-QAADAH, ( Julus ) is similar to the â€Å" THUNDERBOLT POSE † in yoga, which houses the toes, articulatio genuss, thighs and legs. It is said to be good for those prone to inordinate slumber, and those who like to maintain long hours. Furthermore, this place assists in speedy digestion, aids the detoxification of the liver, and stimulates peristaltic action in the big bowel. Fig 5. Tashahhud Thunderbolt Pose Figure 5. Qiyyam in supplication and Thunderbolt Pose in yoga. Last, but non least, the SALAM as â€Å" THROAT CHAKRA † in yoga is activated by turning the caput towards first the right and so the left shoulder in the shutting of the supplication. This nerve way is linked to the pharynx, cervix, weaponries, custodies, bronchial, and hearing – set uping single creativeness and communicating. It is believed that a individual who activates all nervus tracts at least one time a twenty-four hours can stay good balanced emotionally, physically and spiritually. The physicians and medical practicians suggest for the epileptic YOGA, but in this paper we proved that pray has really close similarities with PRAYER. Since this is the end of all sincere Muslims, we all should endeavor to achieve the flawlessness of stance, recitation and external respiration recommended in the Hadith while executing our supplications the really same techniques of flawlessness taught in popular yoga, Tai Chi, and many other exercising classes.A IV. Decision Interestingly, for the 1000000s of people enrolled in yoga categories, the Islamic signifier of supplication has provided Muslims for 14 centuries with some of yoga ‘s same ( and even superior ) benefits. This simple signifier of â€Å" YOGA † offers physical, mental, and religious benefits five times a twenty-four hours. â€Å" Prayer is one of the greatest and most first-class agencies of nurturing the new nature, and of doing the psyche to boom and thrive. â€Å" These were some really meaningful words spoken by Jonathan Edwards over 200 old ages ago in his celebrated discourse on supplication. Timess have changed and so his society, but Edward ‘s message remains dateless. Prayer has non changed nor has its astonishing benefits. This paper shows that those who pray are physically, mentally, emotionally, spiritually healthier than those who do non pray. Those who suffer depression, anxiousness, and even terminal unwellnesss frequently have a quicker healing clip, and more successful endurance rate. Possibly it is this brooding procedure that gives prayer one of its most outstanding benefits. â€Å" Prayer that is invariably and diligently attended to be one of the best agencies of taking non merely an good-humored and pleasant life ; but besides a life of much sweet family with Christ, and of abundant enjoyment of the visible radiation of his visage † , says Edwards in his address. To set it rather merely, when we pray, we are turning closer to the Lord we love. We are easing the battles in our lives and bettering our relationships, all the piece acquiring to cognize Him by larning His word, and using it to our lives in many meaningful ways. However, this is fact that non every supplication will acquire all those good substances and endocrines. If you are interrupted in the center of the supplication, you ca n't obtain the full benefit. In amount, supplication is a sort of still speculation, yet traveling speculation gives better consequence. When you pray, it involves three maps – the oral cavity when you chant, ear as you hear the intonation, and eyes are closed. But in traveling speculation, you will hold to command more of your maps. The more you can command them, the better you can equilibrate your head and organic structure. V. Mentions Denio LS, Drake ME, Pakalnis A. The consequence of exercising on ictus frequence. J Med 1989 ; 20:171-6. Eriksen HR, Ellertsen B, Gronningsaeter H, Nakken KO, Loyning Y, Ursin H. Physical exercising in adult females with intractable epilepsy. Epilepsia 1994 ; 35:1256- 64. Gotze W, Kubicki St, Munter M, Teichmann J. Effect of physical exercising on ictus threshold. Dis Nerv Syst 1967 ; 28:664- 7. Livingston S. Epilepsy and Sports. J Am Med Assoc 1978 ; 224:239. Jalava M, Sillanpaa M. Physical activity, health-related fittingness, and wellness experience in grownups with childhood-onset epilepsy: a controlled survey. Epilepsia 1997 ; 38:424- 9. Arida RM, Vieira AJ, Cavalheiro EA. Effect of physical exercising on inflaming development. Epilepsy Res 1998 ; 30:127- 32. Arida RM, Scorza FA, Santos NF, Peres CA, Cavalheiro EA. Effect of physical exercising on ictus happening in a theoretical account of temporal lobe epilepsy in rats. Epilepsy Res 1999 ; 37:45-52. Bouchard, C. , 1990. The consensus statement. In: Bouchard, C. , Shephard, R.J. , Stephens, T. , Sutton, J.R. , McPherson, B.D. ( Eds. ) , Exercise, Fitness and Health. A Consensus of Current Knowledge. Human Kinetics Books, Champaign, IL, pp. 497-510. Martinsen, E.W. , Medhus, A. , Sandvik, L. , 1985. Effectss of aerophilic exercising on depression: a controlled survey. Br. Med. J. 291, 109. Esquivel, E. , Chaussain, M. , Plouin, P. , Ponsot, G. , Arthuis, M. , 1991. Physical exercising and voluntary hyperventilation in childhood absence epilepsy. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 79, 127-132. Richardson CR, Mehari KS, McIntyre LG, et Al. A randomised test comparing constructions and lifestyle ends in an Internet-mediated walking plan for people with type 2 diabetes. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2007 ; 4:59. Blair SN, Brodney S. Effects of physical inaction and fleshiness on morbidity and mortality: current grounds and research issues. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999 ; 31 ( 11 Suppl ) : S646-62. Midwest. Women Health 2006 ; 44:41-55. Nakken KO. Physical exercising in outpatients with epilepsy. Epilepsia 1999 ; 40:643-51. Collings JA. Psychosocial wellbeing and epilepsy: an empirical survey. Epilepsia 1990 ; 31:418-26. Dubow JS, Kelly JP. Epilepsy in athleticss and diversion. Sports Med 2003 ; 33:499-516. Drazkowski JF. Management of the societal effects of ictuss. Mayo Clin Proc 2003 ; 78:641-9. Howard GM, Radloff M, Sevier TL. Epilepsy and athleticss engagement. Curr Sports Med Rep 2004 ; 3:15-9. Nakken KO. Should people with epilepsy exercising? Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen 2000 ; 120:3051-3. Hill, P. C. , & A ; Pargement, K. I. ( 2003 ) . Progresss in conceptualisation and measuring of faith and spiritualty: Deductions for physical and mental wellness research. American Psychologist, 58, 64-74. Nelson, C. , Rosenfeld, B. , Breitbart, W. , & A ; Galietta, M. ( 2002 ) . Spirituality, faith, and depression in the terminally ill. Psychosomatics, 43, 213-220. Rifkin, A. , Doddi, S. , Karagji, B. , & A ; Pollack, S. ( 1999 ) . Religious and other forecasters of psychosocial accommodation in malignant neoplastic disease patients. Psychosomatics, 40, 251-256. Kabat-Zinn, J. , Massion, A. , Kristeller, J. , Peterson, L. , Fletcher, K. , Pbert, L. , et Al. ( 1992 ) . Effectiveness of a meditation-based emphasis decrease plan in the intervention of anxiousness upsets. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 936-943. Shapiro, S. L. , Schwartz, G. E. , & A ; Bonner, G. ( 1998 ) . Effectss of mindfulness-based emphasis decrease on medical and premedical pupils. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 21, 581-599. Roth DL, Goode KT, Williams VL, Faught E. Physical exercising, nerve-racking life experience, and depression in grownups with epilepsy. Epilepsia 1994 ; 35:1248-55. Bjorholt PG, Nakken KO, Rohme K, Hansen H. Leisure clip wonts and physical fittingness in grownups with epilepsy. Epilepsia 1990 ; 31:83-7. Denio LS, Drake ME, Pakalnis A. The consequence of exercising on ictus frequence. J Med 1989 ; 20:171-6. Freeman JM. Epilepsy and swimming. Pediatricss 1985 ; 76:139. Kogeorgos J, Fonagy P, Scott DF. Psychiatric symptom forms of chronic epileptics go toing a neurological clinic: a controlled probe. Br J Psychiatr 1982 ; 140:236-43. Gates JR, Spiegel RH. Epilepsy, athleticss and exercising. Sports Med 1993 ; 15:1-5. Steinhoff BJ, Neususs K, Thegeder H, Reimers CD. Leisure clip activity and physical fittingness in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsia 1996 ; 37:1221-7. Jalava M, Sillanpaa M. Physical activity, health-related fittingness, and wellness experience in grownups with childhood-onset epilepsy: a controlled survey. Epilepsia 1997 ; 38:424-9. Nakken KO, Bjorholt PG, Johannessen SI, Loyning T, Lind E. Effect of physical preparation on aerophilic capacity, ictus happening, and serum degree of antiepileptic drugs in grownups with epilepsy. Epilepsia 1990 ; 31:88-94. Nakken KO. Physical exercising in outpatients with epilepsy. Epilepsia 1999 ; 40:643-51. Keane, Webb, 1997. Religious linguistic communication. Annual Review of Anthropology 26, 47-71. Wuthnow, Robert, 2007. Cognition and faith. Sociology of Religion 68, 341-360. Courtney Bender. How does God reply back? 2008 ; Department of the Interior: 10.1016. Atran, Scott, Norenzayan, Ara, 2004. Religion ‘s evolutionary landscape: counter intuition, committedness, compassion and Communion. Behavior and Brain Science 27, 713-770.